BE.RN.
CONSERVATION
Abstract
A wide variety of spectrometers are used to collect accurate data and identify material all the way down to a molecular level. The data that is gleaned from these devices has many different functions in the field of science. When it comes to identifying contaminants and levels of pollution, spectrometers are key. Results acquired from spectrometers can function as physical proof of the existence of specific pollution in a water sample. The validity of this data is undisputed and can serve as a great research tool to collect and document pertinent data. Organizations, like The Environmental Protection Agency, use such tools to monitor the quality of water all over America. More specifically, the Great Lakes have been monitored for water quality through the use of many technological tools, like the spectrometer. Conservation efforts that have already been put in place will be discussed along with highlighting a more specialized and current issue of the dredging of the mouth of the Cuyahoga River, located in the city of Cleveland.
Keywords: Spectrometry, Spectrometer, EPA, Water quality, Great Lakes, Conservation, Cuyahoga River and Cleveland
How UV-VIS Spectrometers Accurately Measure Water Quality and Aid Conservation Efforts in the Great Lakes
By: Brooke E. Ryan
Photograph by: Brooke E. Ryan|Cuyahoga River in the Flats|Cleveland, OHIO 2014
Introduction
A spectrometer is a device that detects and analyses wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, which is commonly used for molecular spectroscopy. (Spectrometer, 2014) The use of spectrometers has been around for decades, even though they have evolved immensely since the discovery of the spectrum by Isaac Newton, nearly 200 years ago. (Greenslade, 2012 ) In 1940, Arnold Beckman was decorated with introducing the first UV-VIS Spectrophotometer. (Morris, 2001) A UV-VIS spectrometer shines a light source at a diffraction grating which shoots a whole spectrum of wavelengths at a given sample, while a transmitter records diffraction and absorption levels, which is then digitally displayed. (How does a spectrometer work?, 2011) After the introduction of the UV-VIS spectrometer they were used commercially for many different reasons. Today, there are around 40 different types of spectrometers, even though the UV-VIS spectrometer is still the most common. (Morris, 2001)
In the past and currently, many organizations use this technology and the data that they collect from them in a number of different ways. It is important to understand how spectrometers work and why they give us such accurate results. Without spectrometry all scientific research, in regards to water, would not have strong validity. There are tests available that can quickly calculate pH of water, for example, but how would we be able to give accurate readings on levels of foreign material present in a water sample without spectrometry? The simple answer is we cannot. Spectrometers are used to make absolute measurements. (Greenslade, 2012)
Discussion
Conservation efforts. Measuring water quality through the use of spectrometers is only one way that this tool can be used for conservation efforts. Some types of spectrometers make it possible to test samples and collect data from monumentally hard places to reach, like the bottom of the ocean floor or even outer space. Charles Mazel created a diver operated benthic spectroflourometer for in situ measurements of fluoresces and reflectance of bottom dwelling marine organisms, while fiber based spectrometers can be used to monitor the health of planets and x-ray specretometers have already been taken to Mars! (Morris, 2001) The understanding and health of many species has also been increased due to spectrometers. Spectrometers have been taken into the field and used to measure the reflectiveness of many avian species plumage, in relation to mating selection, and the reflectiveness of lizard scales, in relation to social interactions. (Morris, 2001) There are countless conservation efforts in effect all over the planet, which can be measured and recorded using spectrometry.
The EPA and their involvement in water quality in the Great Lakes. President Richard Nixon created the EPA in 1970 to create and enforce pollution standards in the United States and in 1972 the Clean Water Act was passed that put regulations on pollution discharged from municipal and industrial manufacturing companies and offered grants for sewage treatment facilities. (Environmental Protection Agency, 2014) Many events, like the Cuyahoga River notoriously catching on fire more than once, led to environmental movements that sparked the creation of the EPA, the Clean Water Act and the Great Lakes Quality Agreement. (Cuyahoga River, n.d.)
Ballast water from international and national ships that gets continuously discharged in the Great Lakes, has been the culprit for introducing many invasive species. Once this action was recognized, the EPA ruled that ballast water discharge is not exempt from the Clean Water Act. (Mah, 2005) Even with ballast water being subject to the Clean Water Act, the invasive species that have already made their way into the Great Lakes continue to be a huge problem and offset the largest freshwater ecosystem in the world. The Great Lakes are also a great example of how chemical and biological responses can be shaped or affected by climate change. Studies have been conducted on specific fish species, like the invasive round goby, that show how the presence of pollutants and the fluctuation in temperature, due to climate change, can affect bioaccumulation in the Great Lakes. (NG, 2011) When it comes to testing polluted tissue samples, spectrometers can also be used.
The EPA takes water samples to test from specific locations in all of the Great Lakes every year with the help of a research vessel, The Guardian. (Limnology, n.d.) One of the ways that scientists analyze the samples is through spectrometers. Spectrometers, in general, are not on the cutting edge of technology but they are an accurate way to analyze and record presence and amounts of foreign matter that are in water samples. Taking these samples and compiling this data allows us to monitor the quality of our Great Lakes and leads us to reasons why the quality fluctuates. Once we can identify the source of fluctuation we then can find successful ways to limit what is negatively affecting our water supply.
The conservation issue of water quality and sustaining a healthy ecosystem has been a topic since the Industrial Revolution. More specifically the topic of water quality in the Cuyahoga River and Lake Erie is extremely pertinent to the local community of Cleveland. The greater city of Cleveland receives water from Lake Erie. Further suburbs should feel responsibility for the indirect water quality of Lake Erie because of the pollutants coming from its surrounding tributaries. No matter where you live in a Cleveland, everyone should take pride in the fact that we have such a large quantity of freshwater in our backyard. All boaters are affected by the water quality of Lake Erie and it's rivers. Fishermen are also subject to this topic in regards to the amount and quality of the fish they catch. Do you know where your fish comes from? If you live in Cleveland many fish that you consume have come from Lake Erie, whether you choose to believe it or not.
Even with or without dredging, shipping schedules are random and create unlimited amounts of water turbulence. Turbidity and the amount of sediment present in water is important in determining oxygen levels, which is directly related to the survival of the ecosystem in which it is present. ( Matisoff, 2014) This can be measured by many different types of technologies, ranging from satellites to mobile apps available to smart phones.
Citizen Science. There are many forms of technology used in the efforts of water conservation, but not all of them have to be operated by scientists. One example of such an app is fieldscope. This app and website are created to utilize citizen science in efforts to evaluate water quality by allowing people to photograph water and sky samples, in comparison to a gray photo card, and upload computed data. (Fieldscope, n.d.) There are many apps that ordinary citizens can download and use to collect data in regards to conservation efforts and water quality. AquaGrade, another downloadable app, allows you to see and post TDS results from water samples taken at numerous restaurants and from over 345 bottled water companies. (AquaGrade, n.d.)
The purpose of this paper/webpage is to highlight the significance of spectrometers, show how different types of this technology are used across the globe and how they can be used in conservation efforts, more specifically in regards to water quality in the Great Lakes area. Are you aware of conservation efforts, in your area, that are aided by the use of this technology?
Photograph by: Brooke E. Ryan |Cuyahoga River in the Flats | Cleveland, OHIO | 2015
Types of spectrometers.
Past Spectrometers, like the two-arm spectrometer, three-arm spectrometer, curved spectrometer and wavelength spectrometers, seem basic compared to present spectrometers. Spectrometers used to be quite expensive and hard to obtain, not to mention huge. As technology progresses, the cost and size of these instruments has greatly decreases. One of the smallest spectrometers is a linear variable filter-based spectrometer that is smaller than a business card. (Morris. 2001) Lowering costs and decreasing sizes of these instruments allows more people the ability to purchase these tools and allows these purchasers to take these instruments to the sample site. Mobility of such instruments allows for samples to be tested immediately and in turn increases the accuracy of the sample. But how can this technology specifically help a region like the Great Lakes, where water quality is of the utmost importance?
The Great Lakes.
The Laurentian Great Lakes are the world's largest existing source of freshwater in the world and therefore represent an irreplaceable biodiverse ecosystem. (Pearsall, 2013) The Laurentian Great Lakes have been shaped, while the ecosystem has been modified, by two centuries of anthropomorphic activities. ( Laurentian Great Lakes, n.d ) Ever since the opening of the St. Lawrence Seaway in 1959 there have been at least 180 non-indigenous species introduced by humans into the Great Lakes. (Pagnucco, 2014) Conservation plans for all of the Great Lakes include six major points: invasive species, near shore water quality, fish restoration, coastal conservation, climate change, connectivity and hydrology but also takes into consideration tributaries and migratory species. (Pearsall, 2013) Even with the limited amount of nutrient unloading into Lake Erie, there has still been a decrease in water quality over the last decade. (Matisoff, 2014)
Photograph by: Brooke E. Ryan | Cuyahoga River in the Flats | Cleveland, OHIO| 2015
CONCLUSION
Water quality will always be an issue that affects our whole planet. To fix the problem and to put conservation efforts into affect there must be a way of accurately defining and measuring the natural resource in question. The use of spectrometers allows us to collect data and absolute measurements of foreign matter located in our water. This technology allows us to monitor water quality, which is important to every living organism on planet Earth. Utilizing this technology also allows us to learn and collect data on organisms that are physically impossible for humans to observe in person or with our naked eye. Continual monitoring of water, arguably our most important natural resource, will allow us to pin point and measure levels of pollution. We must properly identify and understand the problem first, to be able to come up with a positive solution.
Further education and conservation efforts are imminent. Educating the public will allow for enlightenment, spark motivation and inspire new ways to continue to make our planet more sustainable. Spreading these messages and data, through new technology, has become more readily available. Further research on the topic could include connecting and creating large public databases that compile absolute data obtained by spectrometers. Continual monitoring and data collection is pertinent to visually and correctly display how the health of our water fluctuates and why. With the rapidly growing human population and amount of pollution, we should be able to utilize the intelligence of the human race and new technology for the better.
REFERENCES:
AquaGrade. (n.d.). Retrieved March 21, 2015 from http://www.aquagrade.com/
Board, E. (n.d.). DeWine right to slam U.S. Army Corps over Cuyahoga River dredge threat: Editorial. Retrieved March 22, 2015, from http://www.cleveland.com/opinion/index.ssf/2015/03/dewine_right_to_slam_us_army_c.html
Cuyahoga River. (n.d.). Retrieved March 20, 2015, from http://www.epa.gov/greatlakes/aoc/cuyahoga/
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). (2014). Encyclopædia Britannica,
Greenslade Jr., T. B. (2012). The Spectrometer. Physics Teacher, 50(3), 152.doi:10.1119/1.3685111
How does a spectrophotometer work? (2011, November 4). Retrieved March 22, 2015, from http://lsteam.org/projects/videos/how-does- spectrophotometer-work
Laurentian Great Lakes. (n.d.). Retrieved March 22, 2015, from http://www.globalgreatlakes.org/lgl/
Limnology Program , Great Lakes, US EPA. (n.d.). Retrieved March 11, 2015, from http://www.epa.gov/grtlakes/monitoring/limnology/index.html
Mah, L. A. (2005). EPA Cannot Exempt Discharges of Ballast Water from the Clean Water Act's Permit Requirements. Ecology Law Quarterly, 32(3), 757-762.
Matisoff, G., & Carson, M. L. (2014). Sediment resuspension in the Lake Erie near shore. Journal Of Great Lakes Research, 40(3), 532-540. doi:10.1016/j.jglr.2014.04.001
Morris, R. (2001). Spectrometers move out of the lab. Laser Focus World, 37(2), 77.
NG, C. A., & GRAY, K. A. (2011). Forecasting the effects of global change scenarios on bioaccumulation patterns in great lakes species. Global Change Biology, 17(2), 720-733. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2010.02299.x
Pagnucco, K. S., Maynard, G. A., Fera, S. A., Yan, N. D., Nalepa, T. F., & Ricciardi, A. (2014). The future of species invasions in the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence River basin. Journal Of Great Lakes Research, doi:10.1016/j.jglr.2014.11.004
Pearsall, D. R., Khoury, M. L., Paskus, J., Kraus, D., Doran, P. J., Sowa, S. P., & ... Elbing, L. K. (2013). ENVIRONMENTAL REVIEWS AND CASE STUDIES: “Make No Little Plans”: Developing Biodiversity Conservation Strategies for the Great Lakes. Environmental Practice, 15(4), 462-480. doi:10.1017/S1466046613000410
Rice, C. P., Schmitz-Afonso, I., & Loyo-Rosales, J. E. (2003). Alkylphenol and Alkylphenol-Ethoxylates in Carp, Water, and Sediment from the Cuyahoga River, Ohio. Environmental Science & Technology, 37(17), 3747-3754.
FieldScope. (n.d.). Retrieved March 11, 2015, from http://education.nationalgeographic.com/education/programs/fieldscope/ar_a=1
Spectrometer. (2014). Encyclopædia Britannica,
The Return of the Cuyahoga | Bullfrog Films: 1-800-543-3764: Environmental DVDs and Educational DVDs. (n.d.). Retrieved April 6, 2015, from http://www.bullfrogfilms.com/catalog/roc.html
The Burning River.
Conservation efforts have put in place in the city of Cleveland, more specifically in regards to the Cuyahoga River and it's water quality. The river run 100 miles in a U shaped path, starting in Geauga County, and eventually empties water from 813 square miles worth of land into Lake Erie in the heart of Cleveland. (Cuyahoga River, n.d.) The mouth of the Cuyahoga River is an entrance for many ships loading and offloading goods. With all of the shipping present in the mouth of the Cuyahoga River there is not a large amount of natural habitat to support a strong ecosystem. The banks of the river are fortified with metal and the river reaches a depth of 26 feet exactly. The largest amount of sediment, contaminated or not, is found at the end or mouth of the Cuyahoga River. (Rice, 2003) The ships that travel on the Cuyahoga River are subject to the river's depth. If the river is not at 26 feet exactly, the ships must compensate and lessen their loads, therefore decreasing their profit. Every inch counts!
Every year the city of Cleveland and the United States Corps of Engineers come together to dredge the Cuyahoga River. In past years the contaminated sediment is loaded on barges and dumped in the middle of Lake Erie. More recently this idea has been frowned upon. Taking steps to dispose of this matter in a more sustainable way can be controversial because of its cost. Should we choose to dispose of waste in a cheap and unhealthy way or should we take a more costly route to dispose of contaminated sediment in the right way? Currently this issue has been a trending topic in Cleveland news. Even with the current debate, the EPA has stated that open-dumping in Lake Erie is a public health hazard and that the United States Corps of Engineers refusal to comply with the state's water standards is a direct violation of an amendment make to the Clean Water Act, in 1977. (Board, E., n.d.)